Classroom
Management Resource Page – Shindler – School Climate – PLSI – Teaching
- Workshops
by JVS
From Transformative Classroom Management. By John Shindler. ©Allyn Bacon
Pub.
Reproduction is unlawful without
permission
In this Chapter:
·
Defining
Competition
·
Likely
Consequences and Benefits of Competition
·
Healthy
vs. Unhealthy Competition
·
Classroom
Applications
·
Competition
in the Transformative Classroom
When we
were students, some of us had positive experience with competition, while
others had experiences that were more often painful or at best not very
enjoyable. As adults, we commonly take
that view of competition that we formed when we were students ourselves, and
then apply it to what we believe is appropriate and right for our students
and/or children; consequently, we may be operating from unexamined assumptions.
As a result, it is possible that our students are paying the price for our lack
of awareness. Therefore, it may be instructive to consider the effects of
competition as objectively as is possible, as we try to find an appropriate
place for it in our classroom.
In this
chapter we examine the nature of competition as well as its place in the
classroom. We will distinguish what could be considered the “healthier” forms
of competition from those that are less healthy, and examine if and when it can
be incorporated into the transformative classroom.
Chapter Reflection 20-a: Recall your experiences of
competition as a student. What is your association with it as a result? How
does your perception vary from that of others you know? How has your perception
affected the way you use (or plan to use) competition in your classroom.
Defining
Competition:
The
definition of human competition is a
contest in which there are two or more people engage in a contest where
typically only one or a few participants will win and others will not (Webster,
2007). By definition competition
exists when there is a scarcity of a desired outcome. Individuals and/or groups
are then in a position that they must vie for the attainment of that outcome.
For example in team athletics, two teams engage in a sport for the purpose of winning.
It is
partially true that the world is competitive. It is difficult to avoid
competition entirely in life. But it is also true that for the most part,
competition in life is a self-imposed or at least self-selected condition. We can just as easily live an existence
defined more by collaborative and self-referential goals than by competition
with others. So to say that the “real world” is inherently competitive is for
the most part a myth. Moreover, to say that we are preparing students for the real
world by putting them in artificially constructed competitive situations is to
impose our world-view on them. In fact, one could argue that in a broad sense,
collectively, we as educators create a more or less competitive future world by
the way we encourage our students to think and treat one another. In other
words, if we create a more cooperative environment in our schools we create the
likelihood of a more cooperative future world, whereas, if we create more
competitive environments, we create a more competitive world in the future.
Chapter Reflection 20-b: In your ideal world, what is the
role of competition? Keep this answer in mind as you reflect on the role that
you want competition to play in the world of your classroom.
The
Affect Competition Has on any Situation
When we
introduce the competitive element into a situation, we find that in essence it
creates a sense of external urgency and drama. Competition brings a variable
into the equation that shifts the participants’ attention from the task itself
to attention to the cost of their performance in the task. For example, if the
task were to assemble a model airplane, we could make it into a competition
declaring the model making activity a race to see who could finish the task
first. Consider how this competitive element changes the participants’
thinking. The sense of urgency (for anyone who cares about winning, and that
may not be everyone) is elevated to some degree. An external drama is now
introduced. The purpose of the activity inherently shifts away from the
learning goals (i.e., engagement in making sense of the various elements of the
process and the attempt to interpret and perform a quality effort to goals
related) to efficiency, speed and the outcome relative to others. As a result
the activity becomes less something in which to engage in and of itself and
becomes more a means to an end (winning). The process or at least reflecting on
the process of the task becomes less important than the product. For the most
part, we can see this change in focus occurring no matter what the teacher may
say either to encourage or to discourage it. The structure by its nature
encourages the shift in the attitude of the participant.
Chapter Reflection 20-c: Recall a situation where you or
someone else was involved in a race to complete a task. Was there more mistakes
being made as a result? Was the quality of the performance better or worse? How
do you explain your observations?
Introducing
competition into the context of a group efforts, we can see much of the same
shift in attitude occurring. When competitive goals are present, the group will
tend to place an increased value on the outcome of the effort and decrease
their focus on the process. In other words, they will increase the attention that
is placed upon doing what it takes to win, and decrease the attention placed
upon learning for its own sake. In addition the competitive element will have
an effect on the group dynamics as well. For example, suppose that we ask
groups to work in teams to assemble model airplanes, and set up a reward for
the group that finishes first or creates the best product. If we contrast this
competitive condition to a purely collaborative condition, the likely result
will be that group members will change the way they regard one another. The
competitive condition encourages one to view their fellow group members less as
peers or a vehicle for learning, and more those to be used to reach the goal.
Such behaviors as dialogue and reflection are useful in the collaborative
condition, whereas in the competitive condition, they often slow the process
and diffuse the group’s focus. In a collaborative condition divergent ideas can
usually be explored without penalty, whereas when we introduce the element of
competition it creates a disincentive to dialogue, or reflect any more than is
necessary to accomplish the task.
In a
collaborative condition there is no disincentive to involve the efforts of the
less dominant and/or competent members of the group. In the competitive condition
however, it is likely that some combination of personality dominance and
individual level of competence will define the values of the process,
inevitably marginalizing weaker and less competent team members. Even with good
will and/or good intentions being present at the beginning of the process,
these trends are likely as the structural incentive in a competitive condition
itself will inherently promote both a shift in the focus of the task and the
nature of the team dynamics.
Chapter Reflection 20-d: Recall your own experience in group
to group competition. What was the attitude of the others? Did everyone in the
group enjoy the experience (even on a winning team)? If not, why not?
A Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Use
of Competition
If we were
to compare the potential benefits of competition to the potential costs, we
find that there are a good number of reasons to be cautious about using
competition. While competition can instantly infuse fun and drama into the equation,
there is a cost. Aside from the shift from process to product focus described
above, there are addition likely consequences such as promoting a fear of
failure and undermines the students’ intrinsic motivation. Figure 20.1 outlines
this cost benefit analysis.
Figure 20.1 Likely Consequences and
Potential Benefits of Competition
Likely Consequences of Competition:
§
Promotes
a shift from means/process to ends/products
§
Brings
an external dimension into the equation, and weakens the students’ intrinsic
motivation.
§
Heightens
the level of anxiety/threat
§
Promotes
a tendency to take on a mentality defined by “fear of failure” (and
consequently winning becomes the way to relieve the anxious condition) and
consequently a “helpless pattern.”
§
In
groups:
o
Shifts
the emphasis from quality relationships to effective relationships
o
Decreases
incentive to think reflectively or divergently
o
Accentuates
the effects of existing social hierarchy and ability levels
o
Decreases
the sense of bond generally among groups (i.e., community) and temporarily
increases the bond within the winning group.
Potential Benefits of Competition:
§
Increases
the level of anxiety/threat for a performance (pressure may potentially help
refine skill given a more demanding performance context).
§
Can
provide a dimension that can potentially reinforce group interdependence an/or
team skills.
§
Can
potentially increase the level of “fun” and/or drama in an activity.
Chapter Reflection 20-e: Reflect on the costs and benefits
of competition listed above. In your opinion does one list outweigh the other?
While the
list of potential costs related to competition is more substantial than its
list of potential benefits, the power of its effect makes its use very
tempting. Typically, we find that little else will get a group of young people
more energized than when we introduce competition into the equation. But like the use of any of the other
extrinsically motivating practices, the short-term benefits can mask the long term
detrimental effect. As is necessary when
we consider the use of extrinsic rewards or other “loaded” strategies, we need
to be intentional and careful in our use of competition.
Use of
Competition in the Classroom:
There are
those that subscribe to position that there is no such thing as “healthy
classroom competition. Yet, while it can be debated whether competition should
be incorporated in schools at all, the fact is that it is a prevalent practice
and will likely be so for some time. Therefore it is useful to distinguish
“healthier” forms of competition from those that are less healthy. There are a
few principles to consider when judging whether a competitive classroom
situation is more or less beneficial.
First,
competitions for valuable outcomes will have more detrimental effects on a
class than competitions for trivial and/or symbolic outcome. There are
essentially three types of “valuable/real” outcomes. They are a) material
things of value - this includes privileges that have a substantive impact, b)
the teacher’s conspicuous and/or lasting affection, and c) recorded grades.
When we give students a meaningful reward for winning, we make the winning what
is important, and we make the statement that students should care at least as
much about getting the reward as they do about the quality of their effort.
Recalling our discussion of motivation in Chapter 7, when we do this we have
drawn the intrinsic motivation out of the situation by introducing an extrinsic
reward.
Second, the
shorter the life of the competition the more likely it is to have a beneficial
effect. The length of the contest will increase its sense of prominence and
decrease its sense of intensity and fun – both undesirable effects. For
example, if we keep track of the number of books each student has read over the
course of the semester and post the tally on a chart on the wall of the
classroom, the initial effect may be an increased sense of motivation to read
books. Therefore, we initially might assume that our strategy has been
effective. However, as the contest goes on, we will notice that students will
increasingly read books just for the sake of the contest, and will have an
incentive to falsify the number of books that they have read. Moreover, over
time we will notice that the competition is becoming less fun and increasingly
more of a burden. At the end of the year, the competition will have produced
essentially one somewhat happy and very relieved student, many students who
feel unhappy about losing, a good number who will feel a little unhappy but
highly relieved that the chart is no longer being held over their head and
shaming them.
Third, the
leader of the competition needs to place a conspicuous emphasis on the process
over the product. If the winning is the point, the students will take on a “do
what it takes” attitude. If the students
are encouraged to value the process, they will feel justified stay focused on
the learning outcome and feel assured that it is okay to put their attention
into quality as the goal. However, enabling this mindset is only possible when
the context itself does not place so much value on winning that the leader’s
emphasis falls on deaf ears. Therefore the two first principles become
prerequisite.
When taken
together we could conclude that the most healthy and beneficial competitions
are those that are undertaken for exclusively symbolic value (e.g., “good job
you won” “polite applause for the winners” “congratulations to group four they
came up with some great ideas and won the contest.”), are short and sweet, are
characterized by all participants feeling like they have a chance to win, and
have the process and quality of work being given conspicuous value, and the
product of the winning given a conspicuously low level of importance. Figure
20.2 lists the principles that create more or less healthy competitive
contexts.
Figure 20.2 Distinguishing Healthier
from Unhealthy Competition
§
In Healthy Competition
o
The
goal is primarily fun.
o
The
competitive goals is not “valuable/real.” And it is characterized that way.
o
The
learning and/or growth goal is conspicuously characterized as valuable.
o
The
competition has a short duration and is characterized by high energy.
o
There
is no long-term effect from the episode.
o
All
individuals or groups see a reasonable change of winning.
o
The
students all firmly understand points 1-5 above.
o
Examples
include: Trivial contests, short-term competitions for a solely symbolic
reward, lighthearted challenges between groups where there is no reward
§
In Unhealthy Competition
o
It
feels real. The winners and losers will be affected.
o
The
competitive goal/reward is “valuable/real,” and is characterized that way.
o
The
learning task is characterized as a means to an end (winning the competition).
o
Winners
are able to use their victory as social or educational capital at a later time.
o
Competition
implicitly or explicitly rewards the advantaged students.
o
Over
time students develop an increasingly “competitive mindset.”
o
Examples
include: Long-term point systems, competition for grades, grading on a curve,
playing favorites, Awards for skill related performance.
o
Chapter Reflection 20-f: Recall the last classroom
competition that you observed. Given the list above, would you classify it as a
healthy or unhealthy competition?
What About a Little Bit of
Competition for Meaningful Outcomes? Isn’t it Okay Sometimes?
It is
highly likely that there are at this point readers who are thinking to
themselves “but I use competition for meaningful outcomes and I don’t see any
problems with it. The winners are happy and it seems like it makes the losers
want to try harder so that they can be winners in the future.”
The full effect
of an “unhealthy” competitive experience may not be apparent on the surface or
immediately. In fact, it may appear like it has had a rather desirable
influence on the students. Vockell (2004) points out that competition helps
some students (i.e., the winners) feel an enhanced sense of self-esteem by
experiencing a favorable comparison. That is, they feel better about themselves
because they came out ahead of someone else. One of the problems with this
source of satisfaction is that it leads quickly to the fear that in the future
one may not come out on top - in other words, a “fear of failure.” In fact, self-esteem based on comparison is
not true self esteem (as discussed in Chapter 8). It is a fragile ego construction.
The best it can lead to is a temporary experience of relief from feeling like a
failure. Ultimately it leads to loss of intrinsic motivation as a result of the
student competing for the external reinforcement (i.e., the prize, the
validation, the favorable comparison) and defining themselves by their personal
“win-loss record.”
When the
student sees his/her school performance as a contest, it leads increasingly to
what Dweck (2000) refers to as a “helpless pattern.” As discussed in Chapter 8,
the helpless pattern develops as a result of the student perceiving
himself/herself as having a fixed quantity of ability and therefore needing to
prove that they are adequate relative to others. While on the surface what may appear as
students who are motivated to perform, is more likely actually evidence of
students motivated to avoid the pain of feeling inadequate and inferior. The development of this helpless pattern
promotes a decrease in internal motivation, a decreased value for growth as a
goal, and decreased resilience to challenging situations. So initially we may
see students who are energized by the competitive challenge (out of fear of
failure, or a desire to enhance their self image by accomplishing a favorable
comparison to others), however, we will eventually get student who put in less
and less effort on the task, quit when things get difficult, and lose interest
in learning unless it includes the drama that the competitive element brings
(i.e., much the same way that the gambling addict needs to play for money to be
able to take an interest in playing the game.)
Chapter Reflection 20-g: Reflect on the most desirable state
of mind of those who need to perform successfully in highly competitive
situations. In some situations, in which the contest is about brute strength,
there are occasions when fear and anger can create a desired effect. Yet, by
and large competitive performance requires the execution of skills and
strategy. Take for example professional golf. When high performing players were
asked to explain what they were thinking in a given pressure situation, the
most common answer is that they were trying to keep their attention in the
moment and resist the temptation to attend to the external stimuli. But as we
know, they are not always successful in doing so. When a player does fail to
stay in the moment and begins to shift their thinking from each shot to an
awareness of their performance relative to the others on the course and/or
relative to a negative event in their past, the common result is poor play.
Commonly this takes the form of a breakdown and/or what is referred to as
“choking.” The top performers such as Tiger Woods have learned to discipline
their minds to focus only on the moment and enjoy the process. They know that
thinking in terms of comparisons (i.e., competitively) will lead to less
effective performance as well as mental distress and less enjoyment of their
job.
Classroom Applications of
Competition
For what
age levels is competition appropriate? The answer is that it is more
appropriate as students get more mature, but little or none of it is
appropriate for very young children. There is no real justification for using
more than a minimal amount of competition in the K-3 classroom. At this age it
has no value or necessity. In the K-3 classroom, our task is to help students
form a “success psychology.” Competition
has very little value in our efforts to do this and will much more likely work
against this goal. For grades 3-6 a small amount of healthy competition can be
justified. Students at this age are old enough to separate themselves from
their outcomes within competitive tasks, if we help and support them in doing
so. Therefore a taste of healthy competition in schools can help the
intermediate age student make sense of and navigate the other competitive
contexts in which they may find themselves. After 7th grade,
students are mature enough to understand many of the natural tendencies, both
healthy and unhealthy, that will want to emerge from within them during the
competitive context. Therefore a reasonable amount of healthy competition, led
by an adult who helps the students remain intentional and aware can be
justified from middle school on.
We might
think of competition in the classroom as we do a timed or public performance –
it raises the level of threat in a situation. When is that a good thing?
Typically, when the skill or knowledge being performed is well-formed and
internalized and/or it is becoming rusty. When is it a bad thing? When the
students are still learning the skill and need to put conscious attention into
it. When one is learning a new skill he/she needs to have a high support and
low threat situation. It is only when we have mastered a skill or set of
knowledge that it is useful to test it in a competitive, timed, or publicly
displayed context.
As we
examine some common applications of competition in the classroom, we can see
that some would best be characterized as entirely unhealthy, while others can
vary from more to less healthy depending on how they are designed and led.
§
Grading on a Curve. Ever fewer teachers subscribe to
the use of normative grading (i.e., grading on a curve). This is an encouraging
trend, as it is difficult to find any support that it is motivational or
necessary. Pitting one student against another for grades has consistently been
shown to have serious ill-effects (Cropper, 1998; Lam, Yim, Law & Cheung,
2004; Kohn, 1986). Moreover, the amount of motivation that it does produce is
rather limited and less powerful than other social structures such as cooperation
(Johnson & Johnson, 1974, 1988).
Chapter Reflection 20-h: Have you ever blanked out in a
competitive condition? When the stakes have been high for a test or public
performance, have you ever found yourself forgetting what to do or say? Test
anxiety is a byproduct of the competitive factor. Our consciousness shifts from
the task to the cost of the performance of the task and we blank out. The
creative mind has been shut down. What is left is a mental defense responding
to a threat condition. While this emotional response may be effective at
producing fight or flight chemicals in the body in the case where we must
engage a crisis of survival, it is not very useful when we are trying to think
clearly and calmly. To test this principle, consider how you performed the same
task in a non-threatening context at another time. Was your mind more at ease
and thus more effective?
§
Playing favorites, Praise and
Disappointment. It
may not appear on the surface to create a competitive condition, but when we
give a differential level of liking, personal praise (see Ch. 8), or its
opposite - personal disappointment, we are creating a subtle form of classroom
competition. In a sense, when we do this we are saying that there is some
criteria that we use to decide whom to show more affection and admiration.
Showing differential levels of liking will have the effect of essentially an
emotional token economy. All students lose in the long run in this kind of
environment. While the favorites may initially feel fortunate, however, along
with those that have been un-favored, they are being encouraged toward an
external locus of control and a failure
psychology. Ultimately this type of competitive emotional climate can be
even more harmful than creating a competitive performance environment.
Chapter Reflection 20.i – Reflect on your experience as a
student. Can you think of teacher behaviors other than games and normative
grading that caused you to think of yourself as being in competition or to
comparison of yourself in relation to the other students in the class? What
were they?
§
Table Points and Group-Group
Competition for Points. In some cases, using games that result in group points can be a useful
tool to help bring a heightened level of attention and importance to certain
group skills and can help clarify behavioral expectations. For example, during the first week of school,
we might give points to groups for being ready, listening, demonstrating
intra-group cooperation, exhibiting or going beyond the class expectations,
etc. As a result, this practice can fall in the healthy column, if it is done
thoughtfully and deliberately. However, beware of the pitfalls. Above all be
clear about what behavior leads to what outcome. Therefore, it is important to
make a clear distinction among the following: a) that which is graded
academically, b) that which is rewarded/graded for investment in the
process/participation, and c) that which is given points. Even if these
distinctions exist, they can be difficult for some students to interpret. So
first, we need to make sure that we keep these areas separate and distinct, and
second, be very clear and conspicuous with our students what system is leading
to what.. As discussed in Chapter 22, assessing participation and process can
be a very sound strategy. However, this assessment information should never be
used as part of a competition or a game. For example, if we give group points
for quality process investment and/or cooperation and then include these
assessments as part of a group grade for a project, we need to keep those
points separate from any points that we give for a group competitive game. We
can do both – the game and the participation assessment, however, we just need
to keep them entirely separate. If not, we can destroy the sense of reliability
and trust in our formal participation assessment system, and our game will be a
lot less fun as students will be confused about the purpose and impact. In
Figure 20.3 a purposeful and effective use of table points is contrasted to an
accidental and ineffective system.
Figure 20.3: Comparison of a Healthy
vs. Unhealthy Classroom Points Competition System
|
Accidental/Unhealthy Use of
Competition – Group Table Points |
Intentional/Healthy Use of
Competition for Group Table Points |
|
Teams are
randomly selected and will be in place for a long period of time. |
Teams are
selected to be representative and evenly matched, and are changed every
couple days or weekly at the very latest. |
|
A reward
is given to the team that wins at the end of the competition that most
students feel is of real and meaningful value (i.e., a prize, a party, a
substantial privilege such as not having to do an assignment (which is a
counterproductive reward in and of itself, as discussed in ch.7). |
There is
no talk of a reward. Teams are just competing for abstract “points.” |
|
The
teacher gives points for performances where some students have an advantage,
such as intelligence, background knowledge, culturally biased knowledge,
physical ability, etc. |
The
teacher gives points for a variety of things that are often trivial,
sometimes connected to the content of the class, and frequently related to
the demonstration of behavioral expectations (i.e., things over which
students have complete control). For example, when the teacher sees one group
cooperating effectively, they would (without warning and only minimal
recognition) give that team a point. Conversely, when the teacher observed a
group or two that was being selfish and making a poor effort investment, they
may give the other groups a point who are making a quality effort. The
recognition is always on the positive. The negative is only recognized as the
absence of valuable behavior. |
|
The points
are counted at the end of each day and the team who is in the lead is given a
great deal of affirmation. The teams who are not in the lead are given a bit
of shame for being behind and any team who is far behind is teased. |
Once in a
while the teacher points to the point totals, but puts most of their verbal
energy into the improvement of the quality of the behavior in the class. The
teacher helps the students recognize that their efforts to learn how to
collectively function are paying off, to the mutual benefit of the class. |
|
Predictably
there will be a team or two who will be out of the running in the point
standings, and they will be very aware of it. Predictably, they begin to
blame and resent one another. As the competition goes on they will
increasingly lose interest in the game and begin to make only a minimal
effort or even possibly lose on purpose as a means to exerting a sense of
power over the situation. They will increasingly grow in their resentment of
the team that is winning and the teacher. |
The
competition is not held up as a substantive means to personal satisfaction
for the students. So while they are interested in the outcome and feel a
sense of drama, they do not feel substantially attached to the outcome. The teacher
has been very intentional about helping them recognize the many other
meaningful outcomes that are taking place in the class that are of
importance, such as the individual and collective growth of the class. |
|
The
competition becomes a source of pain for the teams that are far behind as it
drags on. For the teams in the lead it is a source of a feeling of
entitlement, superiority, and fear of losing. . While it maintains some power
to modify behavior, this power decreases daily, and it is related primarily
to a desire to avoid pain. |
The
completion is changed and modified frequently so it never gets stale and all
teams feel that they have a chance to come back and win. Since the teacher
has never made a big deal of winning, the team in the lead does not fear
losing what is essentially only a symbolic reward. After a couple of weeks
the teacher ends the competitions. |
|
Competition
is used throughout the whole year and the importance of it is increasingly
emphasized. This is necessary because, while the students do not realize it,
they are losing interest, because there is nothing inherently satisfying
about the competition and the reward is not worth being so slavish to the
procedures. |
Competition
is brought back once in a while for brief episodes, but is never given any
place of importance. See the
next section – Competition in the Transformative Classroom. |
·
Knowledge bowl, Trivia, Jeopardy
and/or Mock Quiz Show Games. If we design a game for our students to play that
includes academic content, it has the
potential to be fun and help reinforce certain skills and content, however, we
need to keep in mind the principles for a healthy competition. For example, the
use of a jeopardy-like game, or a team knowledge bowl competition to review for
tests can raise the level of interest and excitement while accomplishing
essentially the same degree of content processing. But if the outcome of the
game becomes part of what is formally graded, the competition goes from the
healthy to the unhealthy column. Let us
compare two scenarios, one in which the outcome translates into each students
formal grade and a more healthy application in which it does not.
In a healthy use scenario, we might divide the class into 4
groups and have students work together to answer questions related to the
content of any upcoming exam. The content would be familiar and the competition
would act as a means of testing the degree to which the students could retrieve
the information under pressure. The purpose would be clearly stated as a form
of preparation for an exam. At the end of the competition the teacher would
want to recognize the efforts of each team and ask the teams to offer the
winning team their congratulations and polite applause. After this recognition
of effort, it would be effective for us to make a statement related to what the
knowledge level during the competition indicated about the assessment of
readiness of the group. In this scenario, the competition is simply a means,
the desired end is the learning and the fun.
In an unhealthy scenario, the one might start the same way,
by dividing the class into 4 groups. But as soon as we tell the class that the
competition has a meaningful cost (the grade for the day in this case), things
will change. One of the first changes will be that the students will become
conspicuously obsessed with fairness, the rules and the appearance of cheating
and/or any sign of favoritism by the teacher. A great deal of our energy will need
to be spent putting down angry demonstrations when any event is perceived by
students to have been unfair. As discussed earlier, the members of each team
will be encouraged by the competitive structure to put aside a democratic and egalitarian mentality and make
judgments about how best to win. One’s team members become seen less as
participants in a learning activity and become obstacles to achieving a valued
outcome (winning). When the game is over, it is likely that the students will
walk away with the primary lessons learned being related to the fairness of the
game, the teacher’s responsibility for making the game and the teams fair, and
ultimately their degree of happiness or unhappiness related to the outcome.
What was learned about the content or group cooperation will likely take on a
much less meaningful significance. If we continue to use the same format, these
trends will become strengthened. Over time the students will begin to associate
us increasingly less with fun and more with the cause of their dissatisfaction.
The bickering and complaining will start as soon as the teams are created.
Moreover, the students will become increasingly impatient with low-ability
members of their teams. The hostility within those that are embarrassed during the
activity will likely come out in retribution in contexts other than the content
review game. Those that are resentful of
losing, due to what they perceive as the performance of the other members of
their team, will grow in their dislike of those they see as the cause of
keeping them from obtaining the goal of a desirable daily grade. In this
scenario it is tempting to blame the level of character in the students, when
the real culprit is the structural design of the competitive activity itself.
Chapter Reflection 20-j: How would you feel at the end of a review activity if the
teacher gave daily grades depending on how well your team did? What would
change in your attitude the next time you played?
The Place of Competition in the
Transformative Classroom
A
thoughtful and intentional use of competition has its place in the
transformative classroom. Competitive contexts offer learning and growth
opportunities that are unique. The primary goal in the transformative classroom
is to help students become familiar with the feelings and tendencies that will
want to emerge from within, and take a thoughtful and intentional approach to
their participation within the competitive context. Teaching students how to
deal with competition could be compared to sex education. In doing so, we are
not endorsing any behavior, but it assumes that the student may likely find
themselves in a situation where knowledge and a proactive mindset to this area
could be valuable, so they should have a healthy and informed approach to it.
In most
cases, the competitive context brings out feelings in students that they think
are natural. In a sense, these feelings are natural, however, they are not
going to lead to a feeling of natural happiness and peace (i.e., the natural
condition). Students should be helped to see the feelings that competition
brings out as normal and predicable, but not necessary. Feelings such as
worrying about losing, needing to win to feel good about oneself, or needing
the drama of the competition to feel interested, or being so worried about the
outcome that one losses focus on the process, are all normal but inevitably
dysfunctional habits of mind. We need to therefore help our students recognize
these normal tendencies and instead use more functional thinking to guide their
choices and define their state of mind during a competitive experience.
To
accomplish this “competition education,” we need to incorporate three factors.
First, we need to make sure that all competitive contexts are healthy as
defined by Figure 20.b. If we create unhealthy contexts (e.g., we get excited
about or give meaningful rewards to the winners or we place a great deal of
emphasis on the outcome as being what is important) we will create confusing
messages to the students, and undermine our results. Second, we need to help
students be aware of their competitive feelings in low stakes contexts. Third,
we need to help our students test their ability to stay conscious and
intentional in higher stakes competitive situations.
Low stakes
competition includes situations such as when we tell the students that we are
“looking for a ready group,” when students are engaged in doing group
presentations, or when we have them take part in small-scale competitive games.
During these low-threat competitive contexts we need to be clear about the
purpose of the competition (i.e., fun and learning, and not winning) and help
students pay attention to what is going on internally. When it comes to games
we might be very direct, making the statement to the class, “If we can play
these games for fun, we will keep playing them. If we start worrying about who
wins or loses, or we start doing sloppy work to be done first, we need to stop
doing them.” If, as suggested in Chapter 12, we give minor privileges (e.g.,
getting to go line up first) to groups
or individuals for being “ready” early, we need to make it clear that we all
need to be “ready,” that it helps the whole class, and we are just using the
game to emphasize that an important collective skill. Our message to students
may be “This is good practice for games in life, we are all capable of being
the first one’s ready, if your group is ready first, great, if not, you made a
good effort that helps us all. So we all win when we try our best.”
Chapter Reflection 20 – k: Recall our discussion of the
1-Style Classroom in Chapter 12. If we are trying to help students become self
directed, we may want to wean them off behavioral expectation competitions such
as looking for the “ready group” when we see the behavior become internalized
and consistently demonstrated. We can substitute positive recognitions and then
ultimately group appreciation and recognition as the class develops as a
community.
As we raise
the level of competitive energy, we need to help the students keep in mind that
the reason that we are using the skills that we have developed in a competitive
context, is not to see who is better, but to see how well each of us does with
a competitive learning environment. We are primarily testing our characters,
and only secondarily testing our skills. We need to help them see that we are
helping them learn how to perform under pressure, and learn that one can
actually perform in high stakes contexts without the need to feel pressured,
anxious, or like their self-esteem is attached to the outcome.
As we help
students grow in their understanding of how to take part in competition without
losing awareness of what will lead to the most intentional, functional and
productive outcome, we need to be very specific and pro-active in the messages
that we send and the consequences that we deliver. In each competitive
situation, we might keep in mind the following: a) potential problems that
might come up, b) the messages that we would want to send to resolve and bring
awareness to those problems, and c) the actions that we will take if we need to
if, students cannot do it on their own.
Below are a
few of the potential problems that may arise as students learn to be effective
within competitive contexts, some of the messages that we would want to send as
a result, and possible actions that we may need to take to help reinforce the
messages.
Potential Student Problem 1: We notice students being tentative
and anxious – showing that they are working in part out of a fear of failure.
Intentional Teacher Counter-Message: When the students take on a mindset
of a fear of failure, we need to first bring their awareness to what they are
thinking. We need to ask them if they are working from a desire to grow and
learn (i.e., a mastery orientation) or a spending a lot of mental energy and
attention on protecting their self-image (i.e., a helpless orientation). We
will want to remind them that we are playing for fun, and what is important is what
they learn. We need to tell them to stay in the moment, focus on the process
and let the outcome take care of itself.
Possible Teacher Action: First, we need to be sure that we
can back up what we are saying and the competition is not for meaningful stakes,
the students are prepared for what we are asking them to do, and the we have
not created an emotional climate that has glorified winning. Second, we need to
send a message that we care about each student and want them to do well. We
need to be the teacher not the judge, let them see us putting our attention
into instruction, and supporting their efforts with that instruction.
Potential Student Problem 2: Students begin to put too much
focus on the outcome/winning and lose sight of quality, cooperation, process,
sportsmanship, and ethics, or become too concerned with fairness and cheating.
Intentional Teacher Counter-Message:
When the students
get too focused on the competitive element of the task, remind them that what
is important is what they learn and how they treat one another. Remind them
that the competition does not affect their grade or anything else that is
important. If they are obsessed with fairness, help them use it as a means to
becoming bigger than their situation. Explain to them that winners overcome
adversity and don’t get sidetracked by bad calls, corrupt systems, bad breaks,
etc. Help them see that this is good practice for life. Real victory is the
ability to look back and like how we acted during the competition.
Possible Teacher Action It would be a good idea if your
assessment system supported the message that what is being rewarded in the
class is the process. Chapter 22 may be helpful in that area. If a team or
individual does not show the ability to work in a competitive context without
falling apart emotionally, blaming, cheating, or complaining excessively, a
consequence is required. The best consequence in this case will most often be
losing the opportunity to take part. Having a group or student sit out and
reflect on their previous actions and the priorities that motivated them should
be valuable. It may help to reflect along with them, if they are having trouble
seeing where they are going wrong. But as always our message to them needs to
be “I know that you will be able to do this eventually, relax, take a few deep
breathes, think about it a while. During this past situation you were not able
to show the level of self-discipline that we need to be able to take part. You
are smart, capable and reflective, and you have a lot to contribute, so let’s
work on this so you can join the group as soon as possible.”
Potential Student Problem 3: Things get too heated and students
become too competitive and place too much value of winning. When this happens
we can recognize that students are trying to enhance their egos and defend
their self-images by winning, and while it is ultimately a never ending and
losing battle, in this case the students have lost perspective and are
following unhealthy instincts.
Intentional Teacher Counter-Message:
When things get
heated that is a clear sign that the students are letting their egos get too
involved. We might begin by asking them a question such as “Hey gang, it is
just a game remember? Ask yourself, what is it that is making you so competitive
right now, is it the need to feel good about yourself by beating others or
proving your worth? Look around, these are your friends, they will still love
you and you will still love yourself when the game is over.” Help them stay in
the moment and enjoy the process and recognize that peak performance comes from
being completely in the moment and letting go of the outcome. Help them shift
their goal to staying present and doing a good job with the quality of the
relationships and performing the task, and away from the illusion that wanting
to win will help you win and/or be happy and satisfied.
Possible Teacher Action: If the students cannot hear your
redirection message because they are too immersed in the drama of trying to
enhance their self-images by winning, you will need to simply withdraw the
privilege of the competition. Our message to them at this point, will need to
be that – “in this class, we compete to learn how to compete, when we cannot
demonstrate that we are ready for it, we need to stop for a time and then try
again when we are.” When the emotions are still fresh, an episode such as this
may provide a powerful opportunity for the class to reflect on why it is so
difficult for any of us not to get all tied-up in needing to win. However, if we
have allowed the game to come to completion, this processing will not be as
powerful. We need to let the class recognize the clear cause and effect
significance in our action – “in this class we use competition to the degree
that we are ready for it.”
In the
transformative classroom, the feedback and positive recognitions are reserved
entirely for process related performance and the quality of the participation.
In the transformative class students learn that winning is not the point, and
losing is not a big deal. Neither winning nor losing is meaningful. What is
meaningful is what we learn about ourselves in the process, how we treat each
other, what we learn about our skill level.
Chapter Reflection 20-l: Reflect on your role as the teacher/leader
in the transformative class. While we may need to provide strong guidance and
leadership as the group is learning to function, our goal should remain to let
them learn to do it themselves. So avoid being in the role of referee or judge.
Can you think of a teacher that you have seen that liked to be in the role of
referee? What did the students learn as a result? Where did the anger and
complains go when things went wrong?
Finally, we
need to remember that, in the transformative class, games are for fun. In the
transformative classroom games and competition provide both a learning
opportunity and a chance to play. So what makes a game fun? First when the
participants do not fear the potential consequences. So teaching students how
to play without fear of failure or letting their egos become too involved is
prerequisite. Second, students need to access the joy of the moment and have
fun with the process. Involvement, challenge, adventure, suspense all can feel
fun, if the student lets themselves and the situation supports fun over
comparison. The influence of comparison will be a fun killer. Fun during a
competitive context occurs when the participant sees the competition as the
game, and the fleeting reality, and the learning, relationships, and
self-respect as the lasting reality.
Conclusion
So we must
approach the use of competition like it is toxic paint or an electric power
tool. It can produce beautiful results, but unless we take great precautions
the likelihood is that we will regret putting it in the hands of young people.
If it seems harmless, it is simply because we are not perceiving the threat
clearly. And while no one is going to sue us for promoting a fear of failure
like they would if we allowed a student to injure themselves with a power tool,
we need to be no less safely conscious.
In the next
chapter, we will examine the sibling of unhealthy competition - the use
systematic public shaming in the form of a deficit model behavioral system. In
much the same way as competition can motivate by fear of failure, deficit
models motivate by a fear of experiencing guilt and shame. In Chapter 22, we
examine more healthy alternative that achieves both more effective results as
well as supports our efforts to promote a success psychology within our
students.
Chapter Reflections
1.
Reflect
on your experience as a student. What was your experience of competition? Do
you still hold that perception today? Do it affect the way that you approach
competition in your classroom?
2.
What
types of teacher behaviors encourage students to think competitively? Can you
think of teachers that you have observed
that promoted a mentality of comparison and competition among their students in
ways other than games and contexts?
Chapter Activities
1. In your
group, discuss the question – Is the real world competitive? Can one live a
competition free life?
2. For each of
the following activities conceive of teacher behavior and/or a lesson design
structure that would promote it being a healthy competition, and one that would
promote it being an unhealthy competition.
a. Reporting the
results of a test.
b. Walking
through the room examining student projects.
c. Encouraging
groups to clean up and get ready.
d. Holding a
Spelling Contest
e. Holding a
food drive
References
|
Cropper.
C. (1998) Is Competition an Effective Classroom Tool for the Gifted Student?
Gifted Child Today Magazine, v21 n3 p28-31 May-Jun 1998 |
|
DeVries, D., Edwards, K.,
& Wells, E. (1974). Team competition
effects on classroom group process (Tech. Rep. No. 174).
Dweck, C.
(2000) Self-Theories; Their Role in
Motivation, Personality and Development. Psychologists Press.
Johnson, D. W., &
Johnson, R. (1974). Instructional goal structure: Cooperative, competition, or
individualistic. Review of Educational
Research, 44, 213-240.
Johnson, D. W., &
Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and
competition: theory and research.
Johnson, D. W., &
Johnson, R. (1999). Learning together and
alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning.
Kohn. A.
(1986) No Contest: The Case Against Competition. Houghton Mifflin
Lam, S.,
Law, J., Cheung, R. (2004) The effects of competition on achievement motivation
in Chinese classrooms. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, June pp. 281-296(16)
Vockell. E.
(2004). Educational psychology: a practical approach.
Webster
(2007)